mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment

of the users don't pass the Mamluks quiz! Profits from trade in these regions led consolidation of their political control. [137] The Mamluks brought about a similar decline of the Armenian Orthodox Church after their capture of the Armenian Cilician Kingdom in 1374, in addition to the raids of the Timurids in 1386 and the conflict between the Timurids and the nomadic Turkmen Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Qoyonlu tribal confederations in Cilicia. [92] Barquq was arrested and exiled to al-Karak where he was able to rally support for his return to the throne. [168] The administrative offices were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to various elements of the military hierarchy. Imported luxury goods from the east sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture. [201], Metalware, whether in the form of ewers, basins, or candlesticks, was widely used in various contexts and many examples have survived today. [161] The army Baybars inherited consisted of Kurdish and Turkic tribesmen, refugees from the various Ayyubid armies of Syria and other troops from armies dispersed by the Mongols. Set individual study goals and earn points reaching them. [99] During his reign, Shaykh reestablished the state's fiscal administration to replenish the treasury. [153] In an anecdotal testament to the caliph's lack of real authority, a group of rebellious mamluks responded to Sultan Lajin's presentation of the Caliph al-Hakim's decree asserting Lajin's authority with the following comment, recorded by Ibn Taghribirdi: "Stupid fellow. Then, Aybak's successor, another Mamluk commander named Qutuz, officially founded the Mamluk Sultanate in 1250 CE. Some manuscripts could be monumental in size; for example, one Qur'an manuscript produced for Sultan Sha'ban measured between 75 and 105 centimetres tall. [165] To bring further uniformity to the military, Baybars and Qalawun standardized the undefined Ayyubid policies regarding the distribution of iqtaat to emirs. The mamluk was an "owned slave", distinguished from the ghulam, or household slave. [159] Al-Mustansir's Abbasid successors continued in their official capacity as caliphs, but virtually held no power in the Mamluk government. [48], In August 1266, the Mamluks launched a punitive expedition against the Armenian Cilician Kingdom for its alliance with the Mongols, laying waste to numerous to Armenian villages and significantly weakening the kingdom. The Mamluk Sultanate survived until 1517, when it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. The Mamluk sultans also controlled south-eastern Asia Minor and western Arabia. [33] The Syrian mamluks were led by their patron Jamal ad-Din Aydughdi and were assigned most of the iqta of Aktay and his allies. [90] Nonetheless, in the following year, Barquq toppled as-Salih Hajji with the backing of Yalbugha's mamluks and assumed the sultanate, adopting the title of Baybars, "al-Malik az-Zahir". [178] However, prior to the Mamluks' rise, there was a growing tendency of iqta holders to treat their iqta as personal property, which they passed down to their descendants. [197], Mamluk decorative artsespecially enameled and gilded glass, inlaid metalwork, woodwork, and textileswere prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. [105], Although the Mamluk Sultanate was ended by the Ottoman conquest, the Mamluks as a "self-perpetuating, largely Turkish-speaking warrior class" continued to influence politics under Ottoman rule. 1. [71] Following the dtente, an-Nasir Muhammad was able to usher in a period of stability and prosperity in the sultanate through the enacting of major political, economic and military reforms that were ultimately intended to ensure his continued rule and consolidate the Qalawunid-Bahri regime. [204][205][206] While Cairo was the main center of patronage, Mamluk architecture also appears in other cities of their realm such as Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Medina. Baibars attempts to expand into Mongol Territory The seventh Crusade begins [35] Their deaths left a relative power vacuum in Egypt, with Aybak's teenage son, al-Mansur Ali, as heir to the sultanate. Hulagu Khan's Siege of Baghdad ended the Islamic Golden Age. [187], Among the responsibilities of a Mamluk provincial or district governor were repopulating depopulated areas to foster agricultural production, protecting the lands from Bedouin raids, increasing productivity in barren lands[186] (likely through the upkeep and expansion of existing irrigation networks),[188] and devoting special attention to the cultivation of the more arable low-lying regions. [138], Bedouin tribes served as a reserve force in the Mamluk military. Either way, the Mamluks were proud of their heritage. The Mamluks came to Egypt largely from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia and the Caucuses. On January 25, the Mamluk Sultanate collapsed. [199], Patronage varied over time, but the two high points of the arts were the reigns of al-Nasir Muhammad and of Qaytbay. [173] Typically, a qadi or Muslim scholar would occupy the post, but in the 15th century, Mamluk emirs began to be appointed as muhtasibs in an effort to compensate emirs during cash shortages or as a result of the gradual shift of the muhtasib's role from the legal realm to one of enforcement.[175]. . [88] Yalbugha was subsequently killed by his own mamluks in an uprising in 1366. [71] The first of an-Nasir Muhammad's son to accede to the sultanate was Abu Bakr, who an-Nasir Muhammad designated as his successor before his death. Mamluk history is generally divided into the Turkic or Bahri period (12501382) and the Circassian or Burji period (13821517), called after the predominant ethnicity or corps of the ruling Mamluks during these respective eras.[5][6][7][8][9]. [19] The situation was calmed after the intervention of the atabeg al-askar (commander of the military), Fakhr ad-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh. On 2 May 1250,[21] a group of disgruntled Salihi officers had Turanshah assassinated at his camp in Fariskur. Frontispieces were often decorated with star-shaped or hexagonal geometric motifs. [177] The iqta of the Muslims differed from the European concept of fiefs in that iqta represented a right to collect revenue from a fixed territory and was accorded to an officer (emir) as income and as a financial source to provision his soldiers. [101] The latter had grown wealthy from their burgeoning trade with central Africa and achieved a degree of local popularity due to their piety, education and generally benign treatment of the inhabitants.[101]. Why do historians concern themselves with the Mamluks, a brief period of rule between the fall of the Ayyubid Sultanate and the Abbasid Caliphate, and the rise of the Ottoman Empire? [31] Instead of isolating Aktay as was Aybak's intention, the assignment allowed Aktay to impose extortionate taxes in Upper Egypt and provide him the personal funds to finance his patronage of the Bahriyyah. The Qalyub kashif killed another Arab Bedouin Shaykh, 'Ali al-Asmar ibn Abi'l-Shawarib. They were successful in combat, beating them at the Battle of Ain Jalut and the Battle of Homs. [44], Baybars rebuilt the Bahriyyah's former headquarters in Rawdah island and put Qalawun, one of his most senior associates, in command of it. Source: Wikimedia Commons. [198] Trade with Iran, India, and China was even more extensive, turning Mamluk cities into centers of both trade and consumption. [153] The accession of blood relatives to the sultanate was often the result of the decision or indecision of senior Mamluk emirs or the will of the preceding sultan. Original image by Ro4444. Baybars ended the Ayyubid and early Mamluk tradition of selecting a Shafi'i scholar as qadi al-qudah (chief judge) and instead had a qadi al-qudah appointed from each of the four madhabs. Then in the summer of 1260, the . The term 'Mamluk Sultanate' is a modern historiographical term. Nonetheless, with rare exception, the Burji sultans were all linked to the regime's founder Barquq through blood or mamluk affiliation. [120] While the precedent set by the Ayyubids highly influenced the Mamluk state's embrace of Sunni Islam,[121] the circumstances in the Muslim Middle East in the aftermath of the Crusader and Mongol invasions also left Mamluk Egypt as the last major Islamic power able to confront the Crusaders and the Mongols. [79] Ahmad relocated to al-Karak and left a deputy to rule on his behalf in Cairo. [171] The Mamluks introduced greater centralization over the economy by organizing the state bureaucracy, particularly in Cairo (Damascus and Aleppo already had organized bureaucracies), and the Mamluk military hierarchy and its associated iqta system. 5. In an attempt to dislodge Aybak, the Bahriyyah petitioned an-Nasir Yusuf to claim the Ayyubid throne and invade Egypt, but an-Nasir Yusuf initially refused. [107] Two Ottoman era Mamluks, Iwaz Bey's Mamluk Yusuf Bey al-Jazzar and Jazzar Pasha were known for massacring Bedouins and given the name "butcher" (al-Jazzar) for it. [148] Cairo remained the capital of the sultanate and its social, economic and administrative center, with the Cairo Citadel serving as the sultan's headquarters. [148], A consistent accession process occurred with every new Mamluk sultan. Although not in the same form as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji family succeeded in regaining much of their influence, but remained vassals of the Ottomans. [84][85] This led to resentment from Hasan's own mamluks, led by Emir Yalbugha al-Umari, who killed Hasan in 1361. [181] The rawk surveys organized the iqta system and the first rawk was carried out in 1298 under Sultan Lajin. [98] Faraj was able to hold onto power during this turbulent period, which in addition to Timur's devastating raids, the rise of Turkic tribes in Jazira and attempts by Barquq's emirs to topple Faraj, also saw a famine in Egypt in 1403, a severe plague in 1405 and a Bedouin revolt that virtually ended the Mamluks' hold over Upper Egypt between 1401 and 1413. The muhtasib in Cairo was the most senior of the four and his position was akin to that of a finance minister. [123] While Ibn Taymiyyah was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and was arrested numerous times by the Mamluk government for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern-day Muslim world. [143], In Egypt, the Mamluks, particularly during an-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, had a similar relationship with the Bedouin as in Syria. The Mamluk's largest industry was agriculture, yet their urban areas became increasingly impressive. [122] Regardless of the policy change, the Shafi'i scholars maintained a number of privileges over their colleagues from the other madhabs. The Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo is a standout epoch in Islamic history and is perhaps the grandest example of a rags-to-riches story. However, they were still expected to remain loyal to their master and serve his household. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside. [181] Land was assessed by the periodic rawk (cadastral survey), which consisted of a survey of land parcels (measured by feddan units), assessment of land quality and the annual estimated tax revenue of the parcels, and classification of a parcel's legal status as waqf (trust) or iqta. [53], An-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of his descendants to the throne in a period marked by political instability. [169], The Mamluk economy essentially consisted of two spheres: the state economy, which was organized along the lines of an elite household and was controlled by a virtual caste government headed by the sultan, and the free market economy, which was the domain of society in general and which was associated with the native inhabitants in contrast to the ethnically foreign origins of the Mamluk ruling elite. Have all your study materials in one place. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) at the head of which was the sultan. Emirates NBD. [123] The Shadhiliyyah lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. "[156] The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of khushdashiyya, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. The Mamluk sultans are usually divided into two dynasties, the Bahris (1250-1382), chiefly Turks and Mongols, and the Burjis (1382-1517), chiefly Circassians who were chosen from the garrison of Cairo. [156] Besides his khushdashiyyah, the sultan derived power from other emirs, with whom there was constant tension, particularly in times of peace with external enemies. [157] A Mamluk sultan or his appointees led the annual Hajj pilgrimage caravans from Cairo and Damascus in the capacity of amir al-hajj (commander of the Hajj caravan). [130] There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Coptic Christians and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses of worship in times of intercommunal tensions. The main source of popular hostility was resentment at the privileged positions many Christians held in the Mamluk bureaucracy. [155] The qaranis occasionally constituted a hostile faction to a sultan, such as in the case of Sultan as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of an-Nasir Muhammad. Increased circulation of copper coins and the increased use of copper in dirhams often led to inflation. King Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles surrendered and were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade. Ultimately, however, consensus settled on as-Salih's widow, Shajar ad-Durr. [65] Early into an-Nasir Muhammad's second reign, the Ilkhanids, whose leader, Mahmud Ghazan, had converted to Islam, invaded Syria and routed a Mamluk army near Homs in the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299. Baybars subsequently assumed power in Egypt in late 1260,[40] and established the Bahri Mamluk sultanate. [23], Turanshah proceeded to place his own entourage and mamluks, known as the "Mu'azzamiyah",[21] in positions of authority to the detriment of Salihi interests. Stop procrastinating with our study reminders. That is, until the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. [172] In Egypt in particular, the Nile River's centralizing influence also contributed to Mamluk centralization over the region. [106] The Mamluk influence remained a force in Egyptian politics until their abrupt end at the hands of Muhammad Ali in 1811. The first sultans (kings) of the Mamluk Sultanate were mamluks (slave-soldiers) in the armies of the Ayyubid dynasty. Their presence has had an influence and an impact on the people and customs. [45] However, Baybars success in establishing centralized rule resulted in the consolidation of the Mamluk Sultanate. [93], Barquq died in 1399 and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son, an-Nasir Faraj, who was in Damascus at the time. They were produced in the thousands and suspended from the ceiling by chains. [171][183] Agricultural products were the main exports of Mamluk Egypt, Syria and Palestine. [17], As-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession to the Ayyubid throne, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his original and newly recruited Mamluks on the condition that they remain in his service. na'ib as-saltana). [68], Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother, an-Nasir Muhammad, being overthrown the following year by a Mongol mamluk of Qalawun, al-Adil Kitbugha, who in turn was succeeded by a Greek mamluk of Qalawun, Husam ad-Din Lajin. [110] The Mamluks contributed to the expansion of Arabic in Egypt through their victory over the Mongols and the Crusaders and the subsequent creation of a Muslim haven in Egypt and Syria for Arabic-speaking immigrants from other conquered Muslim lands. [155], The sultan was the head of state and among his powers and responsibilities were issuing and enforcing specific legal orders and general rules, making the decision to go to war, levying taxes for military campaigns, ensuring the proportionate distribution of food supplies throughout the sultanate and, in some cases, overseeing the investigation and punishment of alleged criminals. Trade continued nonetheless and despite papal restrictions on trade with the Muslims during the Crusades. [201] The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which in turn encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. [193] Thus, during the 15th century, the long-established trade between Europe and the Islamic world began to make up a significant part of the sultanate's revenues as the Mamluks imposed taxes on the merchants who operated or passed through the sultanate's ports. Circassian Mamluks like the Gharbiyya Khashif Inal al-Sayfi Tarabay started slaughtering Arab Bedouin shaykhs like Shukr and his brother Hasan ibn Mar'i in 1519 in revenge for the Bedouin betraying the Circassian Mamluks to the Ottomans. Upload unlimited documents and save them online. In the late 16th century, hundreds of bandits on horseback stormed through the countryside of Ottoman Anatolia raiding villages, inciting violence and destabilizing the sultan's grip on power Four hundred years later and a few hundred miles away in the former Ottoman territory . [192] To make up for these losses, the Mamluks applied a three-pronged approach: taxation of the urban middle classes, increasing the production and sale of cotton and sugar to Europe, and taking advantage of their transit position in the trade between the Far East and Europe. How did the environment impact the Mamluk Sultanate? [177], Agriculture was the primary source of revenue in the Mamluk economy. By the 16th century, gunpowder was becoming increasingly popular and effective in combat, and the Mamluks were slow to the draw. [27] The Bahriyya were named after the Arabic word bahr, meaning "sea" or "large river", because their barracks was located on the Nile River island of Rawda. Although he was assassinated years later, the precedent of a Mamluk rule was evident to all. [95] The new Egyptian niyabas were Alexandria, Damanhur and Asyut. [142] Beyond his personal admiration of the Bedouin, an-Nasir Muhammad's motivation for distributing iqtaat to Al Fadl, especially under the leadership of Muhanna ibn Isa, was to prevent them from defecting to the Ilkhanate, which their leaders had done frequently in the first half of the 14th century. The lower-ranking emirs also had their own corps, which were akin to private armies. Rather, it caused disruption of agricultural activities, destruction of crops and economic loss. "Bahriyyah") elements of the Salihiyyah, by distributing to them iqta and other benefits. In addition, his diplomacy was also intended to maintain the flow of Turkic mamluks from Mongol-held Central Asia. The Ayyubids had owed their allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate, but the latter was destroyed when the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1258 and killed Caliph al-Musta'sim. [131] By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1. [11][12][10] The other official name was 'State of the Circassians' (Dawlat al-Jarakisa) during Burji rule. What were the social classes in the Mamluk Sultanate? [143] The Al Fadl tribe eventually lost favor, while the Bedouin tribes of al-Karak were strengthened by the later Bahri sultans. [71] Most of his successors, except for an-Nasir Hasan (r. 13471351, 13541361) and al-Ashraf Sha'ban (r. 13631367), were sultans in name only, with the patrons of the leading mamluk factions holding actual power. [162] As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they would often utilize their respective forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. [184], In Egypt, Mamluk centralization over agricultural production was more thorough than in Syria and Palestine for a number of reasons. [45], Another major component to Baybar's rule was intrastate communication. [40] Hulagu sent emissaries to Qutuz in Cairo, demanding submission to Mongol rule. From Arabic, Mamluk (or Mameluke) translates as "one who is owned." [75] This partially explains his purges of the thousands of mamluks purchased by his predecessors. [185] The state's role in Syro-Palestinian agriculture was restricted to the fiscal administration and to the irrigation networks and other aspects of rural infrastructure. By registering you get free access to our website and app (available on desktop AND mobile) which will help you to super-charge your learning process. [81] Isma'il ruled until his death in August 1345, and was succeeded by his brother al-Kamil Sha'ban. Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo on January 20, the center of power transferred then to Constantinople. [139] Bedouin tribes were also a major source of the Mamluk cavalry's Arabian horses. [72] Initially, an-Nasir Muhammad left most of his father's mamluks undisturbed, but in 1311 and 1316, he imprisoned and executed most of them, and again redistributed emirates to his own mamluks. [54] Despite an alliance with the Assassins in 1272, in July 1273, the Mamluks, who by then determined that the Assassins' independence was problematic, wrested control of the Assassins' fortresses in Jabal Ansariyah, including Masyaf. However, an-Nasir Muhammad's senior aide, Qawsun, held real power and ultimately imprisoned and executed Abu Bakr and had an-Nasir Muhammad's infant son, al-Ashraf Kujuk, appointed in his stead. In the ensuing half-hour clash, Baybars's men feigned a retreat and were pursued by Kitbuqa. After initial festivities, the 3,000 gathered Mamluk nobles were caught in a trap and gunned down. The Mamluks arrived in Egypt largely from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia and the Caucuses. Qutuz in Cairo was the primary source of revenue in the Mamluk Sultanate Mamluk commander named Qutuz officially... Disgruntled Salihi officers had Turanshah assassinated at his camp in Fariskur or hexagonal geometric motifs [ ]! Of their heritage owned. 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